1. INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING HARMONIZATION

In 1971, Prof. Thomas R. Weirich, Clarence G. Avery and Henry R. Anderson suggests three different approaches:

A. Universal system
2. Descriptive and informative approach that includes all the methods and standards of all countries, and
3. Accounting practices of subsidiaries in foreign countries and parent firms.

They called and explained this defisional approaches, each of the following:

The world of accounting. Within the framework of this concept, the international accounting is considered as a universal system that can be adopted by all countries. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) for the entire world, sort of in the U.S., will be established. Practices and principles will be developed so that it can be applied in all countries. This concept will be the ultimate goal of the international accounting system.

Internasional.Konsep accounting major from the second term involves the international accounting and informatif.Berdasarkan descriptive approach to this concept, covering all the different international accounting principles, methods and standards of all involved negara.Konsep GAAP of each country, so that accountants need to be aware of a number of prinsipberbeda when studying accounting principles internasional.Tidak no universal or perfect that need to be established. Collection of all the principles, methods and standards of all countries will be referred to as the international accounting system. These differences arise due to differences in geography, the influence of social, economic, political, and legal.

Accounting for Foreign Subsidiaries at the three main Negri.Konsep that can be applied to “international accounting” refers to the accounting practices of the parent company and its subsidiaries outside negeri.Acuan the particular country or place of residence in this concept the company is required to report international financial accounting is the main efektif.Kepentingan translation and adjustment of financial statements of subsidiaries. Accounting problems will arise and the different accounting principles to be followed depending on the different countries which is used as a reference for the translation and adaptation.

International accounting aimed at expanding public accounting (general perpose), a nationally oriented, in the broadest sense to:
(1) international comparative analysis,
(2) measurement and reporting of accounting issues that are unique to multinational business transactions and the form of multinational businesses,
(3) accounting for the needs of international financial markets, and
(4) harmonization of worldwide accounting diversity and harmonization of financial reporting through polotik activities, organizations, professions and manufacturing standards.

Harmonization and International Accounting Convergence

In relation to international standards, there are several kinds of steps taken by many countries in relation to differences in the standards they make sebelumnya.Secara outline the steps that can be taken can be divided into the harmonization and convergence.

Harmonization is a process to improve the comparability (compliance) with the accounting practices to determine the limits on how large these practices may vary. In simple terms the harmonization of accounting standards may mean that a country does not fully follow the standards that apply internasional.Negara only make the accounting standards that they have no conflict with international accounting standards.

International Harmonization of advantages:

1) into global capital markets and investment capital can move across the globe without a hitch. High-quality financial reporting standards that are used consistently throughout the world will improve the efficiency of capital allocation.

2) Investors can make better investment decisions will be more diverse portfolio and reduced financial risk.

3) The companies can improve decision making strategies in the areas of mergers and acquisitions.

4) The best ideas arising from the standard pat-making activity is spread in developing global standards of the highest quality.

Convergence in accounting standards and international standards in the context of future intended means there will be only one standard. One then applies that standard to replace the standard that had been made and used by the country’s standard convergence sendiri.Sebelum there usually there is a difference between the standards that were developed and used in the country by international standards. Convergence of standards would remove the differences slowly and gradually so that later there will be no difference between the state standards with internationally accepted standards.

IFRS (International Financial Accounting Standard)

The IFRS international accounting standards issued by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB). International Accounting Standards developed by the world’s four major organizations, namely the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB), Commission of the European Community (EC), International Organization of Capital Markets (IOSOC), and Federation of International Accounting (IFAC).

IFRS (International Financial Accounting Standard) is an effort to strengthen global noted that financial architecture and the search for lasting solutions to the lack of transparency of financial information.

The purpose of IFRS is to ensure that the interim report noted that financial companies to dimaksukan periods in the annual financial statements, contain high quality information that:

1 . Transparency for users and comparable throughout the period presented.
2. Provide an adequate starting point for accounting based on IFRS.
3. Can be produced at a cost not to exceed the benefits to the users.

While the potential benefits of a change of system of IFRS as a global standard yatitu:

* Be the global capital markets and investment capital can move across the world without any fuss. Stadart high-quality financial reporting that is used consistently throughout the world will improve the efficiency of the local allocation.

* Investors can make better decisions
* Companies can improve the decision making process regarding mergers and acquisitions
* The best ideas arising from the manufacture of standard activities may be disseminated in developing high-quality global standard.

In addition to the role of regulator, AEI has interests as an association have to empower its members to overseas investors can see the same reference if we have to adapt to IFRS. About the purpose of application of IFRS is to ensure that the preparation of the interim report noted that financial companies for the periods included in the annual financial statements, contain high quality information that consists of:

* Ensuring that the financial statements of the company’s internal quality infomasi mmengandung
* Transparency for users and comparable throughout the periods presented
* Can be produced at a cost not to exceed the benefits to the users
* Increase investment

Thus the role of regulators in the socialization of what a great goal and the benefits go to IFRS. “The company will also enjoy a lower capital cost, which is more easily consolidated, and integrated information technology system,” said Patrick Finnegan, a member of the International Accounting Standards Board ( International Accounting Standards Board / IASB), IFRS in the National Seminar in Jakarta.

more info :

http://busn.uco.edu/fbuchanan/BusHorizons.pdf
http://www.econ.upf.edu/docs/papers/downloads/294.pdf

2. INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL ANALYSIS

 DIFFICULTIES OF INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS STRATEGY ANALYSIS AND STRATEGY FOR THE COLLECTION OF INFORMATION
The purpose of financial analysis is to evaluate the performance of companies on the present and past, and to assess whether the performance can be maintained. Investors, equity research analysts, financial managers, bankers, and users of financial reports other has a greater need to read and analyze foreign financial statements.
The need to use and to understand, foreign financial statements also increased due to merger and acquisition activities occurring internationally.

Analysis of International Business Strategy
Analysis and assessment of international finance is characterized by many contradictions. On one hand, how quickly the process of harmonization of accounting standards lead to a growing pretext comparability of financial information around the world. Analysis of business strategy is an important first step in the analysis of financial statements. This analysis provides a qualitative understanding of the company and its competitors related to the economic environment. By identifying the drivers of profit and risk factor is the main business, business strategy or business analysis will help the analyst to make a realistic prediction.
The difficulties of analysis of international business strategy:
a. Availability of information
Analysis of business strategy particularly difficult in some countries because of its lack of reliable information on macroeconomic developments. Obtain information about the industry is also very difficult in many countries and the number and quality of information companies are very different. Availability of specific information about the company is very low in developing countries. Lately, many large companies that keep records and raise capital in foreign markets and have expanded their disclosure voluntarily switch to accounting principles that are recognized globally as an international financial reporting standards.
b. Recommendations for analysis
Data limitations make the effort to analyze the business strategy by using traditional research methods to be difficult. Often frequent trips to study the local business climate and how the industry and the company actually operates, particularly in emerging market countries.
Analysts need to evaluate policies and accounting estimates, and analyze the nature and scope of a company’s accounting flexibility. The managers of the company is allowed to make a lot of considerations related to the accounting, because they know more about the financial condition and operations of their companies. Reported earnings is often used as a basis for evaluating the performance of their management.

ACCOUNTING ANALYSIS STEPS
Accounting analysis
The purpose of accounting analysis is to analyze the extent to which the company reported results reflect the economic reality. Analysts need to evaluate policies and accounting estimates, and analyze the nature and scope of a company’s accounting flexibility. The managers of the company is allowed to make a lot of considerations related to the accounting, because they know more about the financial condition and operations of their companies. Reported earnings is often used as a basis for evaluating the performance of their management.
The steps in evaluating the quality of accounting of a company:
a)      Identify the main accounting policies
b)      Analyze the flexibility of accounting
c)      Evaluate the accounting strategy
d)     Evaluate the quality of disclosure
e)      Identify potential problems it is
f)       Make adjustments for accounting distortions

ANALYSIS OF EFFECT OF ACCOUNTING ACCOUNTING BETWEEN STATE AND PREDICAMENT INFORMATION REQUIRED IN OBTAINING
Financial analysis covers different areas of jurisdiction. For example, an analyst may be some time to study a firm outside the country of origin or to compare companies from two or more countries. A number of countries that have very large differences in accounting practices, the quality of disclosure, the legal system and laws, the nature and scope of business risks, and how to run a business.

This difference means that a very effective analytical tool in the region to be less effective in other regions. The analysts also often face a great challenge to obtain credible information. In most emerging market countries, financial analysts often have high levels of confidence or of limited reliability.
In obtaining the data of International Accounting, there are several difficulties, among others:

1. Depreciation Depreciation expense adjustment will affect profits, it is necessary to consider the age of the functions that must be decided asset management.
2. LIFO to FIFO inventory adjustment supplies should be converted into the FIFO method
3. Backup Backup is the company’s ability to pay or cover expenses for removing the load.
4. Financial Statement Adjustments reformulation of some of the changes after a few calculations on the points mentioned above.

MECHANISM TO RESOLVE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ACCOUNTING PRINCIPLES OF STATE
In addressing the Inter-country differences in accounting principles can be done by several approaches such as:

1. Some analysts present the foreign accounting resize according to a group of internationally recognized principles, or according to other, more general basis.
2. Some of the Others develop a complete understanding of accounting practices in a particular group of countries and companies to limit their analysis of companies located in the State that State.

DIFFICULTIES AND WEAKNESS IN THE INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL ANALYSIS
a. access to information
Information about thousands of companies from around the world have been widely available in recent years. Sources of information in countless numbers up through the World Wide Web (WWW). Companies in the world today have a website and annual report are available free of charge from various other sources.
Another source of valuable information are (1) government publications, (2) economic research organization, (3) international organizations such as the United Nations, (4) organization of accounting, auditing, and securities markets.
b. Timeliness of information
Timeliness of financial statements, annual reports, reports to regulators vary in each country. Differences in the timeliness of accounting information adds to the burden of the readers of financial statements of foreign companies. The burden is greater for firms that have an environment that constantly changes. Assessment conducted in order to be meaningful, it needs constant adjustment of the amount that was reported, by means of conventional or unconventional.
c. Barriers of language and terminology.
d. Foreign currency issues.
e. Differences in the type and format of financial statements.

USE OF WEBSITE / WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW) TO OBTAIN INFORMATION RESEARCH COMPANY
To Obtain Information Research Company Many companies do not make optimum use of disclosure of corporate information via the website, both for financial and corporate sustainability. Another finding in this study is that many companies can not provide information for investors, most of the information presented in the company’s website is about the products or services produced and the many companies that do not update the information presented.
a. Internet Financial and Sustainability Reporting
Since 1995, there have been developments of empirical research related to Internet Financial Reporting (IFR), which reflects the development of forms of corporate disclosure. Some studies examine the factors that influence disclosure policy in the company’s website, such as research conducted by Pirchegger and Wagenhofer (1999) and Saso and Luciana (2008a). Some studies examine the nature and expansion of financial reporting on the company website as an instrument that relate to the stakeholder.
b. Corporate Social Responsibility
Understanding and awareness of business entities to maintain good relations with all stakeholders in an effort to minimizing negative impacts and maximize the positive impact the company’s operational activities towards sustainable development is now understood as a CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility. Strengthening the sustainable development paradigm and corporate social responsibility initiatives CSR reporting or making social and environmental performance are considered as important as the reporting of economic performance. biggest problem is that the quality of non-financial reports are not yet as good as the quality of financial reporting. In addition to far adrift age (> 500 vs. 10-20 years), the gap between the two is marked by a degree of formality, the destination number and interval report.

Sourcer :
http://whindajuli.blogspot.com/2011/05/analisa-keuangan-internasional.html
http://dididyah.blogspot.com/

3. MANAGEMENT PLANNING AND CONTROL

FOUR DIMENSIONS IN MAKING BUSINESS MODEL
Determination of the business model of the big picture, and consists of the implementation, formulation and evaluation of long-term business plan. This game includes four dimensions, namely:

1. Identify the major factors that are relevant to the company’s progress in the future.
2. Formulate an adequate technique to predict future developments and analyze the company’s ability to adapt or take advantage of this development.
3. Develop data sources for the selection of strategic support.
4. Particular choice is translated into a specific set of actions.

STANDARD COST DIFFERENCE CONCEPT AND KAIZEN
Determining the standard cost system tries to minimize the variance between budgeted costs with actual costs. Kaizen Costing stressed to do what is necessary to achieve the desired levels of performance in a competitive market conditions.

The concept of Standard Costs	The concept of Kaizen Cost
Cost control	cost reduction
Applied to existing manufacturing conditions	Applied to manufacturing improvements on an ongoing basis
Goals: compliance with performance standards	Objective: To achieve cost reduction targets
Standards are determined each year	Target cost reduction is determined each month
Analysis of variance based on actual vs. standard	Analysis of variance based on a constant cost reduction
Investigate if the standard is not met	Investigate if the target is not achieved cost

RETURN OF INVESTMENT ESTIMETES
The decision to invest abroad is a very important element in global strategies of multinational corporations. Foreign direct investment involves a large number of general capital and uncertain prospects. Investment risk, followed by an unfamiliar environment, complex and constantly changing. Generally, a formal planning necessity and carried out within the framework of capital budgeting that compares the benefits and costs of the proposed investment.
In the international environment, investment planning is not as simple as that. Differences in tax law, accounting systems, the rate of inflation, the risk of nationalization, currency framework, market segmentation, transfer restrictions retained earnings, and differences in language and culture add to the complexity of the Elements That rarely found in domestic environments. The difficulty for the quantification of these data make-existing problem worse.

CALCULATION OF MULTINATIONAL COMPANY CAPITAL COSTS
If foreign investment is evaluated by using a discounted cash flow models, the appropriate discount rate should be developed. The theory of capital budgeting in particular using cost of capital as its discount rate, thus a project must generate returns at least equal to the cost of capital in order to be acceptable. The level of the benchmark (hurdle rate) is related to the proportion of debt and equity in the company’s financial structure as follows.
It is not easy to measure the cost of capital of a multinational company. The cost of equity capital can be calculated in several ways. One popular method that combines the expectations of return on the dividend by the dividend growth rate expectations. Assuming At = expected dividend per share at the end of the period. Po = market price of the stock is now at the beginning of the period and g = expected growth rate in dividends, the cost of equity, to be calculated as follows to = At / Po g. Although capital is to measure the price of the shares present, in most countries where shares of listed multinational companies, is often quite difficult to measure in and g. In the first place because of the expectations. Expected dividend depends on the company’s operating cash flow as a whole. Measuring the cash flow is complicated by the consideration of environmental factors. Moreover measurement of the dividend growth rate a function of expectations of future cash flows is complicated by the exchange control and other government restrictions on the transfer of funds across borders.

PROBLEMS IN DESIGNING AND CONTROL SYSTEM HASSLE FINANCIAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND MULTINATIONAL COMPANIES
Clear distance is a hassle. Caused by geography, formal information communication generally replace the personal contact between the local operations manager with office management.
Three global information technology strategy, each of which is associated with certain types of multinational organizations. Achieved success depends on the suitability of the design of systems with corporate strategy:
a)      the deployment of low to high centralization. Used by smaller organizations with limited international business operations and information systems need to dominate domestic
b)      high with a spread of low centralization. Local subsidiary is given a significant influence on the development of strategies relating to technology and information systems Himself.
c)      high with a spread of high centralization. Following the global information technology strategy execution locally by global companies with strategic alliances throughout the world. Information system is designed to reflect the needs of the company adapted to local conditions.
Management Accountant to prepare some information for the management of companies, ranging from data collection to reporting estimates of different types of liquidity and operational expenditure. For each group of data submitted by the company management should determine the relevant time period for the report, the level of accuracy required, the frequency of reporting and the costs and benefits of depreciation and timely delivery. Here also the environmental factors that influence the use of information generated translation. Reports from overseas operations of multinational companies are generally translated into U.S. dollar equivalent value of the manager’s office in the U.S. to evaluate their investment in dollars.

VARIANCE ANALYSIS OF EXCHANGE RATE
Three exchange rate to use when Preparing the draft operating budget at the beginning of the period:
a)      The spot exchange rate when the budget prepared
b)      exchange rate expected to apply at the end of budget period (projection level)
c)      exchange rate at the end of the period when the budget be adjusted if changes in the exchange rate (closing rate)

SPECIAL DIFFICULTIES IN IMPLEMENTING THE SYSTEM DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF MULTINATIONAL COMPANIES
Evaluation of performance on certain multinational companies are classified into three levels Basically, namely (1) Level Leadership (Director and above), (2) Supervisors and above, and (3) Employees of low (blue). In the evaluation of the directors to the top, the assessment is directed “leadership framework” which includes 13 behaviors were classified into 4 groups:
1. Inspire people consisting of:

• Leading people. Is the ability of civil servants and make them confident in doing something so That They could create the appearance was consistent with the principles of management and leadership with the translation as follows: Related to keep all relevant information and community, increase effectiveness of work teams and team principal to success.
• Developing people. Is to help employees to identify needs for the successful development needs, encourage employees to learn to provide suitable support. With the translation as follows: Provide a detailed command ensures that the command was understood and Cleary look and create a positive environment for long-term development.
• Practice what you Preach. Is it to be consistent with the principles and values Realizing, including “the passage of communication” even in difficult times.

2. Opening up, consisting of:

• Knowing yourself. Is the ability to precisely identify and understand the power of yourself and fix it as well as applied and implemented in effect, order was understood in a person’s effectiveness in the organization. And has an extensive self-care and deep. Act as a constant (stable) on the influence of their power to correct and compensate for weaknesses.
• Insight. Is the ability to identify relationships between facts, ideas and the situation was not clear and collecting it to solve problems that require priority, clarify and explain the complex situation that has been given / created an opportunity\
• Courage. Associated with the capacity and confidence of employees in their opinion, and allowed to make decisions or choices, along with concerns Evaluating the risks and responsibilities in dealing with critical situations and challenges.
• Curiosity. An employee openly curiosity to learn more about the environment by asking questions to think or do research It appears simple, broad and constant.
• Service orientation. Is the desire to help or serve the customer with an understanding of customer expectations and needs, providing quality services that are long lasting and mutually beneficial as well as a long-term perspective on the merits.

3.   Call with the Other, which consists of:

• Proactive cooperation. Whether working with others through a commitment to Achieve object groups, understand their needs and other targets and adapting own views and the views, if appropriate behavior through personal contribution to effective teamwork.
• Impact: Convince and Others. Is convinced, directly or indirectly to obtain commitment to the project idea or action that the Organization of interest through the use of a lot of convincing arguments, generate interest in others by using the influence of an integrated strategy.

4.   Adding value, comprising:

• The results of the focus. Ambition is to meet the target performance / quality standards and work continuously to Obtain Suitable methods of process improvement, motivation to Achieve the target to increase employment and maximize employment in the long run.
• Initiative. Make the employee is to act proactively (to act and think in simple terms) so that the initiative was not just reacted to the situation, but also anticipating for a long time and do it well.
• Innovation / Renovation. Display behavior to receive the ‘status quo’ challenges in improving the control and new ideas so that there is a change up and running efficiently.

HOW TO FIGHT INFLATION AND THE EFFECT ON fluctuations MULTINATIONAL CORPORATE PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT
For multinational companies, foreign currency fluctuation level of uncertainty resulting from the company’s operations in the international arena. Eye risk management refers to enterprise risk management transactions, economic, and translation. Transaction risk refers to the likelihood that cash transactions in the future will be influenced by changes in exchange rates. Economic risk refers to the possibility that the present value of cash flow company in the future will be influenced by exchange rate fluctuations.
One way to overcome problems of economic risk and the risk of the transaction is to hedge (hedging). Swap contracts require the buyer before a certain currency with a certain exchange rate (forward rate) at a predetermined date in the future. In the face translational risk, management can give a report in dollar-denominated and local multinational management can know the true state of the local divisions and the impact of foreign currency translation.
Multinational companies use a system of decentralized Because It Gives advantage to the country of origin and distribution of foreign divisions. These advantages include:

1. Local managers able to generate better decisions through the use of local information.
2. Local managers can provide more timely responses to changing circumstances
3. Center manager is not possible to understand all of products and markets.
4. Train and MOTIVATE local managers to make decisions daily operations so that top management can focus was more on long-term problems.

Performance measurement in multinational companies should separate the evaluation of a division manager with evaluation of this division. Managers should be evaluated based on revenue and costs incurred. Once the manager is evaluated, a subsidiary of the financial statements can be tailored to the parent company’s currency and the cost can be allocated beyond the control of managers. Environmental factors such as social culture, economic, political, legal, and differ in one country from another country is out of control, but managers will affect company profits and ROI.

Sumber :

http://www.accel-team.com/control_systems/h_control_01.html

4. TRANSFER PRICING AND

INTERNATIONAL TAXATION

TRANSFER PRICING AND INTERNATIONAL TAXATION

INITIAL CONCEPT

The complexity of the laws and rules that determine the tax for foreign companies and the profits generated abroad actually derived from some basic concepts

1.      Neutrality tax is the that the taxes do not have an influence (or neutral) against the decisions of allocation of resource.

2.      Equity tax is the that the compulsory tax that facing a situation that resemble and the similar undue pay the taxes who same but against of disapproval inter how the implements the this concept.

PROFIT FROM THE SUMBAR taxation abroad,

Some States separti french, costal Rica, hongkong panama south africa, swiss and venezuala apply the principle of territorial taxation and impose taxes on companies that are domiciled in the country that profits generated outside the State. While most countries (including Australia, Brazil, China, Czech Republic, Germany, Japan, Mexico, Netherlands, UK, and Amarika States) to apply the principles throughout the world and impose taxes on profits or income of companies and citizens in it, regardless of the territory of the .

FOREIGN TAX CREDIT

Tax credits can in the estimate if the the amount of income tax outer that nation that they paid will not too unclear (ie when the child companies overseas sends partly profits which sourced from overseas to the the parent domestic companies). Dividends are reported here in the parent company’s tax return should be calculated gross (gross-up) to cover the amount of taxes (which are considered paid) plus all foreign levies taxes applicable. This means that as if the parent company receives dividends domestically which includes taxes owed to foreign governments and then pay the tax.

Indirect tax credit allowed foreign (foreign income taxes deemed paid) is determined as follows:

Dividend payments

(Including all tax levies)

x foreign tax can be credited

Profit after tax foreign income

PLANNING TAX IN COMPANY MULTINATIONAL

In the tax planning of multinational companies have certain advantages over a purely domestic firm because it has greater flexibility in determining the geographic location of production and distribution systems. This flexibility provides the opportunity to utilize their own national tax ataryuridis differences so as to lower the overall corporate tax burden.

Observations top of problem planning this tax in began to with two things basic:

1.      Tax considerations should never mengandalikan business strategy

2.      Changes in tax laws are constantly limit the benefits of tax planning in the long term.

VARIABLES IN TRANSFER PRICING

Transfer prices set a monetary value on the exchange between firms that take place between the operating unit and is a substitute for market prices. In general, the transfer price is recorded as revenue by one unit and the unit cost by others. Cross-border transactions of multinational corporations are also open to a number of environmental influences that created the same time destroying the opportunity to increase profits through transfer pricing. A number of variables separti tax rate competition infalsi rates, currency values, limitations on the transfer of funds, political risk and the interests of joint venture partners are very complicated transfer pricing decisions.

TAX FACTOR

Reasonable transaction price is the price to be received by parties not related to special items the same or similar in the exact same situation or similar. Reasonable method of determining the transaction price that is acceptable is:

1.      the method of determining the comparable uncontrolled price.

2.      method of determining the resale price.

3.      plus the cost price determination methods and

4.      other methods of assessment rates

DEFINITION FACTOR

Tariffs for imported goods also affect transfer pricing policies of multinational corporations. In addition to the balance didentifikasikan, mulinasional companies should consider the costs and benefits, both internal an external. High tax rates paid by the importer will generate the income tax base is lower.

Competitiveness Factors

Similarly, a lower transfer price can be used to protect the ongoing operation of the influence of foreign competition is increasingly tied to the local market or other markets. Considerations the competitiveness like it should be be balanced against against many losses which result vice versa. Transfer rates for competitive reasons may invite anti-trust action by the government.

Performance Evaluation Factors

Transfer pricing policy is also influenced by their influence on behavior management and is often the main determinant of company performance.

Accounting for Contributions

The management accountant can mamainkan a significant role in calculating the balance (trade-offs) in transfer pricing strategies. The challenge is to maintain a global perspective when mapping the benefits and costs associated with determining pricing decisions

TRANSFER PRICING METHODOLOGY

In a world with very competitive transfer rates, it will be a big deal when they wanted to transfer pricing resources and services between firms. However, there is rarely a competitive external market for products that are transferred between related entities is special. Problem of determining these costs are felt in the international level, because the concept of cost accounting is different from one country to another.

Principle of Fair

A common type of multinational companies is the integration operation. Subsidiaries are in the same control as well as sharing the same source and destination. The need to declare taxable income in different countries means that multinational companies must allocate income and expenses among subsidiaries and determining transfer prices for transactions between companies.

source:

http://agiewahyuwinata.blogspot.com/2011/05/penetapan-harga-transfer-dan-perpajakan.html

5. FINANCIAL RISK MANAGEMENT IN

INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING

FUNDAMENTAL THINGS

Main objectives of financial risk management is to minimize the potential loss arising from unexpected changes in currency rates, credit, commodities, and equities. The risk of price volatility faced is known as market risk.

Market participants tend not to take risks. Intermediary financial services and a market maker responds by creating a financial product that allows a trader to shift the risk of unexpected price changes to others-the other side.

There is market risk in various forms, other risks:

1.      Liquidity risk arises because not all the financial risk management products can be traded freely. Highly illiquid market is such as real estate and stocks with small capitalization.

2.       Market discontinuity refers to the risk that the market does not always lead to price changes to survive. Stock market crash in 2000 is a case in point.

3.      Credit risk is the possibility that the other party in the contract risk management can not meet its obligations. For example, the parties agree to exchange the euro versus the French into the Canadian dollar may fail to submit the euro on the date promised.

4.      Regulatory risk is the risk arising from public authorities banned the use of a financial product for a particular purpose. For example, Kuala Lumpur stock exchange does not allow the use of shrot sales as a means of hedging against the decline in equity prices.

5.      Tax risk is the risk that certain hedging transactions can not obtain the desired tax treatment. For example, treatment of foreign exchange losses as capital gains as ordinary income to be preferred.

6.      Accounting risk is the chance that a hedging transaction can not be recorded as part of the transaction is hedged about. An example is when the advantage over a hedge against the purchase commitments are treated sebgaai “other income” rather than as a reduction of purchasing costs.

MANAGING FINANCIAL RISK WHY?

The growth of risk management services that quickly shows that management can enhance shareholder value by controlling the financial risk. If the value of the company to match the present value of future cash flows, active management of potential risks can be justified by several reasons.

First, exposure management helped in stabilizing the company’s cash flow expectations. Flow is more stable cash flows that can minimize earnings surprises thus increasing the present value of expected cash flows. Active exposure management allows companies to concentrate on the major business risks.

Lenders, employees and customers also benefit from exposure management. Finally, because of losses caused by price and interest rate risk of certain transferred to the customer in the form of higher prices, limiting exposure management of risks faced by consumers.

THE ROLE OF ACCOUNTING

Management accountants to help in the identification of market exposure, quantify the balance associated with alternative risk response strategy, the company faced a potential measure of risk, noting certain hedging products and evaluate the effectiveness of the hedging program.

1.      Identification of Market Risk

The basic framework is useful for identifying different types of market risk that could potentially be referred to as risk mapping. This framework begins with the observation of the relationship of the various market risks triggering a company’s value and its competitors. And usually referred to as cube mapping risk. The term trigger value refers to the financial condition and performance items that affect the financial operations of the main value of a company. Market risks include the risk of foreign exchange rates and interest rates, and commodity price risk and eukuitas. The third dimension of the cube mapping risk, look at the possible relationship between market risk and trigger values for each of the company’s main competitor.

If a competitor to buy baseball caps from abroad and the country’s currency depreciates in value purchase source relative to the currency of your country, then these changes can cause your competitors are able to sell at lower prices than you. This is referred to as the risk of facing currency competitive.

2.      Balancing quantify

Another role played by accountants in the process of risk management involves balancing the quantification process relating to the alternative risk response strategies. Accountants must measure the benefits of protected areas assessed and compared to the cost plus the opportunity cost of lost profits from speculation and market movements

3.      Risk Management in the World with a Floating Exchange Rate

The risk of foreign exchange (forex) is one of the most common form of risk and will be faced by multinational companies. In a world of floating exchange rates, risk management include:

            a.       anticipation of exchange rate movements,

            b.      measurement of exchange rate risks facing the company,

            c.       design of appropriate protection strategies, and

            d.      the manufacture of internal risk management controls.

 source:

http://www.accel-team.com/control_systems/h_control_01.html