Akuntansi Internasional

The third assignment (International Accounting)
1. Identifying terms of accounting standards and the determination of accounting standards
International Financial Reporting Standards / Iternational Standarts Financial Reporting (IFRS). Inetrnasional accounting standards are used as a result of:
1) international treaties or political,
2) voluntary compliance,
3) the decision by the national accounting standards-making body
The purpose of this standard is to ensure that the company’s internal financial statements for the period – the period referred to in the annual financial statements, which created the first time by the NII IFRS contains information berkualitastinggi for pengguana transparent and comparable throughout all periods presented, provides adequate initial titk for accounting based on IFRS and can be produced at a cost not to exceed the benefits to the users.
According to Prof. Haim Falk explained that there are four advantages to using international accounting standards:
1.  With regard to rekonsiliasikepentingan – special interests of managers – managers who are responsible for financial reporting and the needs of users of financial information
2. The limited capacity of financial information ntuk menginterplasikan recipient of such information appropriately
3. The overall credibility of financial reporting process and the accounting profession to support it
4. Because of the comparative financial information is disclosed is an argument relating to the above point
Internationalization of accounting standards has disebsbkan accounting entry barriers in the social sciences that can not be separated with flexibility so that relative to adapted. According Fante stndarisasi identified three barriers between the countries of international accounting – Developed countries include:
A. Differences in background and tradition of the rear
2. Different needs of different economic environments
3. Standardization challenges to national sovereignty
which tends to support the development of international accounting and reporting standards include:
1. Financial analysis and brokers in the stock market
2. The tendency of large companies looking for capital needs of another State
3. The growing operations – multinational business operations
4. Approval of the encourages inter-state harmonization of the various forms of
5. Increased road show to various state executives infestor
6. Survey
7. Mengglobalnya practice of professional accountants to various State
8. Policies of organizations that promote the use of creditors international
9. Body – the regulatory body of the capital
10. Books – textbooks
Some of the history of the international accounting standard setting
1. Kmite in 1973 the International Accounting Standards (International Accounting Standard Comunite = IASC)
2. In 1977 the Organization for economic cooperation and development (Organization for economic coorporation and development = OECD) issued a declaration of multinational investment in the company ‘that contains
3. In 1977 the International Federation of Accountants (International Federation of Accountant = IFAC) was founded in the same pre experts appointed by the board of United Nations economic and social mangeluarkan reports comprising four parts of the international standards of accounting and reporting for international companies
4. European Commission issued a directive four people as a first step towards European accounting
5. Year 1987Organisasi Interantional Capital market Committee (IOSCO) said in its annual conference to encourage the use of common standards in accounting and auditing practices
Meanwhile, according to Nobes and Parker said the cultural, social and political is the dominant factor affecting the regulation of accounting in many countries. It is obvious that the determination of accounting standards is not only a technical problem.
Accounting standards
Accounting standards can be considered as general guidelines for the preparation of financial statements are an official statement about certain accounting issues issued by regulatory authorities and applicable in a particular environment. Accounting standards generally consists of:
(1) a description of the problems encountered
(2) a logical discussion or how to solve the problem
(3) associated with the decision / theory proposed a solution
Accounting standards by Edey (1977) is divided into four types, namely:
(1) type 1 accountant should notify the user about what they do by making the methods and assumptions (accounting policies) are in the embrace.
(2) type 2 help achieve some keseraaman presentation of certain accounting statements.
(3) type 3 requires disclosure of specific things that affect the user’s consideration.
(4) type 4 requires making implicit / explicit to be made about the valuation of assets and determination of the profits are approved.
Standards in determining objectives
Determination of the standard is that a social choice standara may benefit a particular party and harm others. Most of the issues relating to akunyansi politically sensitive due to:
(1) the need for accounting standards appears when there is disagreement
(2) accounting information can affect the level of welfare use
In determining the standard there are two approaches, namely:
A. Rrepresentative faithfulness,
This approach requires that the reporting is neutral and fair presentation of financial statements through the process of setting standards. This approach to accounting equates with the mapping process which maps should be accurate to describe the company’s financial condition is fair.
2. Economic Consequences,
This approach requires that the standard asopsi have favorable economic consequences. This approach tends to lead to the determination of standards meemiliki positive influence.
Standard setting process
Usually the process of setting standards through an open process (due-procees). FASB as an example of this process follows the following procedure:
1) Identify the problem from the problems that arise in the note on the agenda.
2) The appointment of the group whose members consist of public accounting and business.
3) Discussion Memrorandum (DM) in the spread kepublik to be evaluated for a period not later than 60 days.
4) The opinion made to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the various alternatives proposed FASB
5) Based on various komnentar received, the FASB issued a ‘exposure draft’ (ED) of proposed accounting standaar. ED determine the exact position of the FASB on issues discussed.
6) ED transmitted to the public for at least 30 days evaluation
7) With a view to discuss the weaknesses and the good of the various alternatives proposed FASB
On the basis of comments received, the FASB to take steps as follows:
(A) to adopt these standards as a statement
(B) proposed revisions to the proposed standards through the procedure “due process”.
(C) Pending the standard spending and saving role in the issue
(D) is not standard issue and remove the issue from the
Approach to setting standards
Two approaches can be used in the determination of accounting standards is:
A. Free market approach
This approach is based on the assumption that accounting information is an economic commodity similar to the goods or services will be affected lain.Sehingga accounting information demand and supply strength. Market is seen as an ideal mechanism to determine the type of information should be disclosed and the recipients of information. Thus the accounting standards to determine the information produced and who will receive the information.
2. Regulatory approach
This approach argues that the failure of markets or information in relation to kuantias asismetris and quality. Proponents of this approach believe Bajwa dapaat market failures seen on the following factors:
a) The theory of regulation
The crisis of setting standards encourage the emergence of regulatory accounting policies. Therefore terhadapat demand such policies or standards iatu yanag driven by a crisis arises, the standard setters to respond by providing the policy. The relationship between demand and supply trim on a balance. In a dynamic regulatory process, there is an ongoing process of continuous adjustment to the standard demand and supply.
Belkaoui (1985:48) says that the regulations are generally assumed to be designed and operated in the interest of existing industries. There are two theories of regulation in the industry, namely:
(1) The theory of public interest (public interest theory)
(2) The theory of interest groups (interset group therory).
Public interest theory holds that regulation is needed in response to public demand for improved market practices that are inefficient and unfair. While the theory holds that regulation keompok interest is provided in response to the request of certain groups to maximize their income. In the theory of the group has two versions, namely
(1) theory of elite political and economic theory of regulation.
2. Understanding why different from standard accounting practices prescribed
Harmonization and International Accounting Convergence
In the known existence of financial accounting standards must be followed in making the financial statements. The standard is necessary because of the many users of financial statements, even for a similar financial statements. If there is no standard, the company may present its financial statements at their disposal in accordance with the will of their own. This will be a problem for users because it will make it difficult for them to understand the existing financial statements.
Existing standards for financial accounting standards made by the board in each country. Council is to set standards of accounting standards applicable in the country and used by entities that exist in the country as well. Because the accounting standards prepared and compiled by each board of standards in each country, accounting standards from country to
country may differ greatly.
Currently, when the business world can be said almost without limit state, the production of resources (eg money) that is owned by an investor in a particular country can be moved easily and quickly into the country through mechanisms such as the stock market. Of course there will be a problem when the accounting standards used in different countries with the accounting standards used in other countries. Investors and potential investors and creditors and potential creditors will have great difficulty in understanding the financial statements are presented with different standards.
Harmonization is a process to improve the compatibility (suitability) accounting practices by setting limits on how large these practices may vary. Harmonization of standards will be free of conflicts of logic and can improve the comparability (comparability) of financial information from different countries.
Efforts to harmonize accounting standards have been started long before the establishment of the International Accounting Standards Committee in 1973. More recently, a number of companies seeking to raise capital in markets outside the country of origin and the investors who seek to diversify their investments internationally face increasing problems as a result of national differences in terms of accounting, disclosure, and audit.
Sometimes people use the term harmonization and standardization as if both have the same meaning. However, contrary to the harmonization, standardization generally means the determination of a group of rigid rules and narrow and may even be the application of a single standard or rule in any situation. Standardization does not accommodate the differences between countries, and therefore more difficult to diimplemntasikan internationally. Harmonization is much more flexible and open, do not use one size fits all approach, but to accommodate some of the differences and have experienced great progress internationally in recent years.
Comparability of financial information is a concept that is more clear than harmonize. The information generated from the system of accounting, disclosure and audit different or comparable if it has a similarity in the way in which users can compare the financial statements without the need to familiarize themselves with more than one system.
Accounting standards are the regulations or rules (including also the laws and statutes) that govern the preparation of financial statements. Standard setting is the process of formulating or formulation of accounting standards. Standards are the result of standard setting. However, actual practice differs from the prescribed standard. That is because the 4 things: in most countries the penalty for noncompliance with the provisions of the official accounting tends to be weak and ineffective voluntary infomasi company may report more than required; some countries allow companies to ignore the accounting standards if by doing operations and financial position will tersajikan better results, and in some countries, the standard only applies to the separate financial statements, and not for the consolidated report.
Accounting standard setting involve a combination of private sector group that includes the accounting profession, users and compilers of financial statements, the employees and the public which includes agencies such as the tax authorities, ministries in charge of commercial law and capital market commission. Stock exchanges are private or public sector (depending on country) also affect the process. In common law countries, the private sector is more influential and auditing profession tends to regulate itself and to better be able to attest to the consideration of the fair presentation of financial statements. In code law countries, public sector and influence over the accounting profession tend to be more regulated by the State. This is why different accounting standards around the world.


3. Knowing the accounting systems in developed countries and examples of developed countries, etc.
Accounting Systems in Some Developed Countries
Accounting standards are rules regulations (including laws and statutes as well) that govern the preparation of financial statements. Standard setting is the process of formulating or formulation of accounting standards. Accounting standards can be said is the result of standard setting, although not in accordance with standard practice.
Four (4) The reason why the practice is not in accordance with the standards, namely:
1.Di most countries the penalty for noncompliance with the official accounting tend to be weak and ineffective
2.Secara willingly allowed the company to report more information than is required
3.Beberapa countries allow companies to ignore the accounting standards if by doing operations and financial position will be better.
4.Di some countries accounting standards only apply to the separate financial statements and not to the consolidated report.
Auditing profession tends to regulate itself in countries that adhere to fair presentation (specifically British-influenced) and more auditors to conduct an objective consideration of the audit was to attest to the fair presentation of financial statements. Whereas in countries with a legal code, the accounting profession tend to be regulated by the state because the primary purpose of the audit is to ensure that the records and financial statements in accordance with the provisions of the law.
4. Identify similarities and differences in accounting systems in developed countries
Rules and accounting systems in the country – these countries have a system of difference equations and also, where in each  that is in use by these countries have advantages and disadvantages of each – one in the application of accounting systems in the country. Accounting standards and rules set out in certain countries is certainly not entirely the same as other countries. Role in determining standards of professional accountants and accounting rules were more common in those countries wherewith to enter the professional rules in the rules of the company, such as in Britain and the United States. Meanwhile, Christopher Nobes and Robert Parker (1995:11) explains the presence of seven factors that lead to important differences in the development of international accounting systems and practices. Such factors include the
(1) the legal system,
(2) the owner of the funds,
(3) the influence of the tax system
(4) stability of the accounting profession.
(5) inflation,
(6) accounting theory
(7) accidents of history
Regulation of the legal system of the company, including in this case is the accounting systems and procedures, much influenced by the legal system in force in a country. Some countries such as France, Italy, Germany, Spain, the Netherlands adhere to the legal system that is classified in the codified Roman law. Codified in law, the rules associated with the basic idea of ​​moral and justice, which tends to be a doctrine. Meanwhile, countries like Britain, the United States and British Commonwealth countries adopted the common law. In common law, the existence of an attempted answer to specific cases and not make a general formulation.
Sources of funding by source of funding, the company can be grouped into two. The first group is a company that gets most of the funds of the shareholders in the capital market (shareholders). The second group is a company that gets most of the funds of the bank, state or family funds. Generally, in countries with a majority of companies owned by shareholders but the shareholders do not have access to internal information, the more demands on the disclosure (disclosure), examination (audit) and get an unbiased (fair information).
The extent to which the tax system tax system may affect the accounting system is to look at tax laws determine the extent to which accounting measurement (accounting measurement).
In Germany, books must be equal to the tax according to commercial accounting. Whereas in many other countries such as Britain, the United States and also includes Indonesia, there are rules – rules that differ between taxation and commercial companies. The most obvious example of this is depreciation. Accounting profession and the organizations established as a forum for the profession it is different in every country, and results in the form of rules or standards are affected by the shape, authority and members of such bodies.
In some countries it was found that the separation of the accounting profession, as a tax expert or just as a corporate accountant. Members of a governing body of accounting standards may consist only of the public accountant or involve parties from business groups, industry, government and educators. The level of education and experience in the practical world as a condition of a person to become a member agency will also determine the quality of accounting standards and rules as the output produced. International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) is a standard framework and to interpretation adopted by the Accounting Standards Board (IASB). Many of the standards forming part of IFRS are known in advance, namely International Accounting Standards (IAS) issued between 1973 and 2001 by the International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC).
And on 1 April 2001 his responsibilities were taken over by the IASB to establish the International Accounting Standards. The later IASB continues to develop new standards called IFRS standards. IFRS are considered as “principles based” broad rule consists of: 1.Standar International Financial Reporting (IFRS) – standards issued after 2001. 2.Standar International Accounting (IAS) – standards issued before 2001. 3.Interpretasi derived from the interpretation of International Financial Reporting Committee (IFRIC) – issued after 2001. 4.Berdiri Interpretation Committee (SIC) – which was published prior to 2001. 5.Kerangka Presentation and Preparation of Financial Statements. IFRS are used in many parts of the world, including the European Union, Hong Kong, Australia, Malaysia, Pakistan, GCC countries, Russia, South Africa, Singapore, and Turkey. Since August 27, 2008, more than 113 countries around the world, including throughout Europe, currently require or permit IFRS reporting is based. About 85 countries require IFRS reporting for all, domestic companies are listed.
While in Indonesia itself will be adopted starting in 2012. And the adoption of IFRS in full, the financial statements prepared under GAAP does not require a significant reconciliation with the financial statements under IFRS. However, such changes would have an effect on many fields, especially in terms of education and business.
The existence and importance of accounting profession
Accounting profession that is more advanced in developed countries also make the accounting system used by more advanced than in countries that are implementing a centralized accounting system and uniform.
Accounting education and research
Accounting education and research carried out less well in countries that are developing. Professional development is also influenced by education and the quality of accounting research.
The accounting rules
Accounting standards and rules set out in certain countries is certainly not entirely the same as other countries. Role in determining standards of professional accountants and accounting rules were more common in those countries wherewith to enter the professional rules in the rules of the company, such as in Britain and the United States. Meanwhile, Christopher Nobes and Robert Parker (1995:11) explains the presence of seven factors that lead to important differences in the development of international accounting systems and practices.
Such factors include the
(1) the legal system,
(2) the owner of the funds,
(3) the influence of the tax system
(4) stability of the accounting profession.
(5) inflation,
(6) accounting theory
(7) accidents of history.
The legal system
Company regulations, including in this case is the accounting systems and procedures, much influenced by the legal system in force in a country. Some countries such as France, Italy, Germany, Spain, the Netherlands adhere to the legal system that is classified in the codified Roman law. Codified in law, the rules associated with the basic idea of ​​moral and justice, which tends to be a doctrine. Meanwhile, countries like Britain, the United States and British Commonwealth countries adopted the common law. In common law, tried to answer the existence of a specific case and does not create a legal formulation to determine how individuals and institutions interact. The western world has two basic orientations: the codification of law (civil) and common law (case). Mainly drawn from the legal codification of Roman law and because ode Napoleon. In countries which adhere to the legal system is Latin-codification of Roman law is a complete group that includes the provisions and procedures. Codification of accounting standards and procedures are fair and appropriate thing in there.
Sources of funding
By source of funding, the company can be grouped into two. The first group is a company that gets most of the funds of the shareholders in the capital market (shareholders). The second group is a company that gets most of the funds of the bank, state or family funds. Generally, in countries with a majority of companies owned by shareholders but the shareholders do not have access to internal information, the more demands on the disclosure (disclosure), examination (audit) and get an unbiased (fair information).
Tax system
Countries like France and Germany using the company’s financial statements as a basis for determining income tax debt, while countries like the United States and Britain to use financial statements have been adjusted by the tax code as a basis for determining the tax debt and delivered separately to the financial statements to shareholders . The extent to which the tax system may affect the accounting system is to look at tax laws determine the extent to which accounting measurement (accounting measurement). In Germany, books must be equal to the tax according to commercial accounting. Whereas in many other countries such as Britain, the United States and also includes Indonesia, there are rules – rules that differ between taxation and commercial companies. The most obvious example of this is depreciation. In most countries, tax legislation effectively determines accounting standards because the company should record revenue and expenses in their accounts to claim the tax purposes. In other words, financial and tax accounting tax is the same.
Accounting profession
Bodies were formed as a container of different professions in each country, and the results of the rules or standards are affected by the shape, authority and members of such bodies. In some countries it was found that the separation of the accounting profession, as a tax expert or just as a corporate accountant. Members of a governing body of accounting standards may consist only of the public accountant or involve parties from business groups, industry, government and educators. The level of education and experience in the practical world as a condition of a person to become a member agency will also determine the quality of accounting standards and rules as the output produced.